1 10 43 https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/62fade620a54b00970dfb82bc922e346.jpg 45beb16fa420ba5af1c9cde821932749 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Ambrotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Sixth Plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary In the case, behind the image, is an original period inscription in pencil: "Abraham, Slave Master." There is no more information about this person, apart from the details of the image itself. We can date the image, based on the type of photographic process (ambrotype) as well as the clothing style, to the late 1850s, possibly a bit earlier or later. In his hand, Abraham holds a long-handled, braided leather whip. This detail, combined with the title "Slave Master," probably indicates that this is an occupational portrait and that he was a slave overseer rather a slave owner. If he were the propertied owner of slaves, he would probably not be identified simply as "Abraham." The overseer was charged with the day-to-day supervision and discipline of the slaves (hence the symbolism of the whip) on larger properties where the owner both needed and could afford to employ others to manage the workforce. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary There is a strange irony to the "Slave Master" in this photograph being named "Abraham" at just about the time that another Abraham, Abraham Lincoln, was being elected to the Presidency of the United States, the Abraham whose Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 would soon bring an end to the careers of all slave overseers. The irony is compounded by the resonance of the name with the Abraham whom three religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam - consider the origin of their monotheistic faiths, religions which, at their best, see that faith as a foundation for freedom. What makes this photograph so powerfully terrible is the coiled brutality that looms behind it, past the stillness of the image: in the tightly clenched hand that grips the whip, in the icy stare of what must have been bright blue eyes, given how light they are in this black white photograph. This is an occupational image, one in which the person portrayed chose to sit with a tool of the trade that most fully symbolized and embodied his identity and profession, and so it is fair to conclude that Abraham took genuine pride in his ability to wield this whip effectively in the everyday duties of his work. It is worth asking, how far have we truly come from a world in which such brutality and dehumanization could be a matter of professional pride? For a slideshow of images that explore the violence, both explicit and implied, in this period of American history, see here. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure100 Title A name given to the resource Abraham, Slave Master Subject The topic of the resource Abraham, Slave Master Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa late 1850s Type The nature or genre of the resource Studio Portrait, Occupational Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Cowans Auctions, Inc., Cincinnati, OH Collection Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Photographer https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/af24d6c88fe59bccc20093cb567fdb79.jpg 38601c61421433e58def77da3e88d22d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Daguerreotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Sixth Plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary Benjamin Drew (1812-1908) was an abolitionist native to Plymouth, Massachusetts. He was an active participant in the work of the Underground Railroad. In 1856, Drew published an influential book entitled A North-Side View of Slavery. The Refugee: Narratives of Fugitive Slaves in Canada Related by Themselves. The book was highly unusual in that Drew interviewed former slaves who had escaped to Canada, and then published their accounts (including the one by Harriet Tubman) more or less in their own words. The book is still in print, and it can also be viewed in its entirety online here. Drew wrote his book in part as a response to another book, one published by Nehemiah Adams, A South-Side View of Slavery; or, Three Months at the South in 1854. Adams, a northerner, wrote a defense of what he deemed to be the moral benefits of slavery for the slaves themselves and against the radicalism of abolitionism that would threaten the unity of the nation. A complete scan of the Adams book may be read online here. The paper pasted on the inside cover of the case reads as follows: "Benj. Drew (3rd), Born Nov. 28, 1812. This picture taken in Plymouth, when he was about 25. For Chas. Davis Drew. From his Grandpa Drew, Oct. 7, 1877." So, it seems this photograph was given as a present by Benjamin Drew himself to his grandson Charles. But Drew could not have been 25 in this image, because that would have been in 1837, and the announcement of the invention of photography was not made until 1839 in Paris, and the art was not brought to the United States until 1840. The date of this image is closer to 1845, making Drew about 33 here. A portrait of Drew taken in 1900 may be viewed here. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary What is remarkable about Benjamin Drew’s work as an author is that he endeavored to let free blacks speak with their own voices, giving testimony about their lives under slavery, their escapes, and their experience of life as free people, living in Canada, safe from the threat of kidnapping by slave-catchers. For an exhibition of abolitionists, click here. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure099 Title A name given to the resource Benjamin Drew Subject The topic of the resource Benjamin Drew Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1845 Type The nature or genre of the resource Studio Portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Gregory Fried Collection Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Photographer https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/e4dad503533856b0973bbb15910ca658.tif 438bce92861163b917df646467a1fbea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data carte de visite: albumen print Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image cdv standard Factual Commentary Factual Commentary Adah Isaacs Menken (1835-1868) was a dancer, performer and poet. Her origins were obscure even in her lifetime, but she seems to have been born as Adelaide or Ada C. McCord in Louisiana, and she took the stage name Ada Bertha Theodore until her first marriage. She had a short but sensational career as an actress, her fame due as much to her own genius for self-promotion as to talent. Her most famous role was playing a man in Byron’s Mazeppa, wearing a flesh-colored body stocking to appear nearly nude, a shocking thing to do at the time, and this photograph portrays her in that role. Menken wore her hair short, smoked at her press conferences, and flaunted her connections with famous men. She married six times. Her first marriage was to Alexander Isaacs Menken, who was Jewish and for whom she converted; she remained in the faith until her death. Her origins are disputed, with reports of lineage that includes a Spanish Jewish father, a New Orleans creole mother, and a free Black father, among other accounts. Menken seems to have reveled in this kind of dramatic ambiguity. From 1864 to 1866, Menken took her Mazeppa role to London and Paris, where it had enormous success, in part due to her notoriety, but attention waned as the novelty wore off. Menken died in Paris in 1868. The photographer Charles Reutlinger (1816-1881?) was born in Karlsruhe, Germany, and opened a studio in Paris in 1850, where his clients included the upper echelons of society. Menken visited his studio during her European theatrical tour. Menken would have used copies of this carte de visit for publicity and sales for the Mazeppa production. A contemporary (but not necessarily reliable) account of Menken’s life may be read here. A collection of Menken’s poetry, Infelicia, may be read here.Adah Issacs Menken managed to flout many of the most hardened conventions of her time: she converted to marry a Jew, she smoked, she wrote and published on topics a "lady" would not discuss in that era, she appeared on stage nearly nude, she divorced five times, she dressed as a man for roles on the stage -- to name some of her transgressions. Add to this the strong possibility that she was mixed race and her career raises important questions about the performative nature of both racial and gender identity. What did it take to "pass" over these lines as boldly as Menken did? How was it possible for her to have public success at all when she violated some of the most stubborn taboos of her society? Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary Adah Issacs Menken managed to flout many of the most hardened conventions of her time: she converted to Judaism, she smoked, she wrote and published on topics a "lady" would not discuss in that era, she appeared on stage nearly nude, she divorced five times, she dressed as a man for roles on the stage -- to name some of her transgressions. Add to this the strong possibility that she was mixed race and her career raises important questions about the performative nature of both racial and gender identity. What did it take to "pass" over these lines as boldly as Menken did? How was it possible for her to have public success at all when she violated some of the most stubborn taboos of her society? For a valuable study of Menken and her transgressive life and career, see Performing Menken: Adah Isaacs Menken and the Birth of American Celebrity, by Renée Sentilles. A recent (2011) biography for a general audience is A Dangerous Woman: The Life, Loves, and Scandals of Adah Isaacs Menken, 1835-1868, America's Original Superstar, by Michael and Barbara Foster. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure095 Title A name given to the resource Adah Isaacs Menken (1835-68) Subject The topic of the resource Adah Isaacs Menken (1835-68) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Charles Reutlinger (Paris) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1866 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait, theatrical performer Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Greg French Collection https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/9af1ec0e880ec05ba3194bfd7ee1cfb2.tif ebb2d5749cb5d4d902e080bd420d0f99 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data daguerreotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Sixth Plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary In early photographs, people often would pose with objects that had special meaning to them, such as tools of a trade, or, as in this case, a book. This woman holds Frosts Pictorial History of California, by John Frost, first published in 1850. She is probably a “Californio,” a Latina native to California, resident after the American annexation following the Mexican-American War of 1846-48. This daguerreotype dates to the early 1850s, soon after the Gold Rush, the war, and the annexation of California as a state in 1850. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary The question of how Latinos, or Hispanics, fit in with the American construction of race is a complex one. Latinos have certainly suffered from racial prejudice in this nation’s history, but at the same time, Latinos do not fall neatly into the standard racial categories familiar to America. Some Latinos do indeed have dark skin, but other Latinos also have European, African, Native, and even Asian roots ― or mixtures of these. Latinos often define themselves ethnically and nationally rather than racially. Nevertheless, Latinos from other parts of the Americas, who come to the United States as immigrants, often bring with them very different social constructions of race that vary from country to country. And of course, other Latinos, such as the woman in this daguerreotype, have roots in the territory of the United States that reach back before this nation’s founding. Given this complexity, the Latino experience of the question of race also has the potential to help Americans see how arbitrary race is as a social construction, and so perhaps the growth of Latinos in the United States will contribute to a dissolution of our entrenches racial categories. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure094 Title A name given to the resource woman holding book Subject The topic of the resource unknown Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1850-1855 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Gregory Fried Collection Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Photographer https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/b37aef2bde0f8141542b00513934112d.tif 7624353e7db127a60cb12fc538aef31c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data carte de visite: albumen print Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image cdv standard, mounted in album page Factual Commentary Factual Commentary Inscribed in period pen on reverse of this carte de visite (circa 1864) is the name “James M. Trotter.” Also inscribed, in period pen on the album page: “James M. Trotter Sergeant 55th Mass.” See image below. There is a printed stamp on the reverse of card, which reads: “Whipple, 297 Washington Street, Boston.” Also present on reverse of card is a 3-cent tax stamp signed in pen “JAW” (John A. Whipple). See below for the back of the card. We can date the image to the period of August 1864 to August of 1866 because the US government required the use of these stamps during that time for the collection of revenue to support the war. According to his enlistment papers (Greg French collection), James Monroe Trotter enlisted on June 11, 1863 and was mustered into company K of the 55th Massachusetts Infantry on June 23, 1863 as a 1st Sergeant. The 55th, like the more famous 54th, was designated as a Colored regiment. Trotter was promoted to Sergeant Major on Nov. 19, 1863 and to 2nd Lieutenant on April 10, 1864. In the photograph, Trotter wears the uniform and officer’s shoulder straps of a 2nd Lieutenant. The image is remarkable for the rarity of African Americans serving as officers in the Union armies, and the even greater rarity of this being documented in a photograph. Trotter was born February 7, 1842 and died Feb. 26, 1892 in Hyde Park, Massachusetts. According to the muster rolls, he was born in Grand Gulf, Mississippi, and enrolled in the Union army in Readville, Massachusetts. His profession is listed as school teacher. He was wounded at the battle of Honey Hill on Nov. 30, 1864. An interesting feature of his enlistment papers is the following remark: “Letters to be directed to Robert Thomas, Parlersburg, Wood Co., Virginia (guardian).” This image reportedly came from the personal album of the French nobleman, the Count de Gasparin, who was sympathetic to the abolitionist cause. James A. Whipple was one of Boston’s leading photographers from 1845 to 1874. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary There is much that is remarkable about James M. Trotter. Born into slavery, he was one of the first Americans of African descent to attain rank as an officer in the United States army, having fought in the Civil War. He went on to have a career as an author, civil rights advocate, and a public servant. His son, William Monroe Trotter (1872-1934), became an important newspaperman in Boston and a civil rights champion in his own right, helping to found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People with W.E.B. Du Bois in 1909. An elementary school in Boston, the Trotter Innovation School, is named after William Trotter. The Mirror of Race has published an essay by Erina Duganne on the topic of "Black Civil War Por­trai­ture in Con­text". We are hoping to publish other essays on topics relating to African Americans fighting for their civil rights, and how that struggle has been reflected in photography. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure086 Title A name given to the resource James M. Trotter Subject The topic of the resource James M. Trotter Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John A. Whipple (American, 1823-1891) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1864-1866 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Greg French Collection https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/d6818c8ab57e03ac3e4ad806d3234d26.tif a1c822862ec4428181c8890810e26af4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data carte de visite: albumen print Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image cdv standard Factual Commentary Factual Commentary This photograph is another in the series of former slaves from the New Orleans area who obtained freedom during the Civil War and participated in one of the first photographic publicity campaigns to support a cause ― in this case, the Union and schools for former slaves. The caption on the front of the card reads: “Learning is Wealth. Wilson, Charley, Rebecca & Rosa. Slaves from New Orleans.” Printed on reverse: “No. 6. / Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by S. Tackaberry, in the Clerk’s Office, of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. / The nett proceeds from the sale of these Photographs will be devoted to the education of Colored People in the department of the Gulf now under the command of Maj. Gen’l Banks. / Chas. Paxson, Photographer, New York. / N. B. ― All orders must be addressed to H. N. Bent, No. 1 Mercer Street, New York.” Wilson is Wilson Chinn, who appears in another image in this exhibition displaying the chains and implements of punishment used on slaves. For more images in this series of photographs of former slaves, see here. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary Of all the photographs in the series of former slaves from New Orleans, this is the one that indicates most directly a key goal of the publicity campaign: to provide education for these former slaves. The children gather around Charley, as if in a family. Little Rosa seems exhausted and fed up with must have been a very long day in the photographer’s studio. Although this image might seem innocuous to a modern viewer, it must be remembered that teaching a slave to read was a crime in the slave states. It was understood that literacy was an essential step on the path to liberation and autonomy, which was either a hope or a threat, depending on whether one’s aim was liberty or preserving the domination of the masters. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure085 Title A name given to the resource “Learning is Wealth" Subject The topic of the resource unknown Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Charles Paxson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1864 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Greg French Collection https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/0dee9a904a10af7b7d9246638e29f2f4.tif 3c90651524b6b52013c6ca76a401ad7b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data daguerreotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Ninth Plate (2 x 2.5 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary This early daguerreotype, dating from the mid-1840s, may have been collected by the Harvard naturalist Louis Agassiz as part of his ethnographic collection. All that we know about the image is a caption written on a slip of paper from the period that identifies them as “two Hindoo men” ― with “Hindoo” being a spelling variant for “Hindu.” So, the two men, otherwise unidentified, were almost certainly visitors to the United States from India. The style of mat and case are American, and so the image was made here. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary One reason to believe that Louis Agassiz collected this image for his ethnographic studies is that they are only identified by ethnicity as “two Hindoo [Hindu] men.” This identification treats them more as specimens than as people. We would expect a proper identification to give us their actual names, for example, but whoever collected this image thought the only relevant thing about them was their type. Who were they? Travel from India to the United States would have been a very serious undertaking in the 1840s, requiring months, even years, and involving considerable risk from accident and illness. So why had they come so far? Such travel would have cost considerable money. Both hold themselves with a certain austere dignity; they are very well groomed and dressed in expensive and fashionable Western clothes, and so they were almost certainly wealthy, high-status individuals. Were they visiting dignitaries? Students? Indian nobility making a grand tour? We hope that further research may yield answers. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure084 Title A name given to the resource two men Subject The topic of the resource unknown Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1845 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Harvard Peabody Museum (T1889 35-5-10; 53059) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Photographer Photographer https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/9eccb4fa8357fdbeafabca6bcd2c5b34.jpg 2c2956d65748a26456597efa38f7259b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data cabinet card Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image cabinet card standard Factual Commentary Factual Commentary Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (1807-1873) was one of the most celebrated naturalists of the 19th century. He has also become quite controversial, because he was one of the major advocates for the theory of polygenesis, the idea that not only are there distinct human races, but that each of these races was separately created, with its own special attributes, to inhabit a specific geographic, environmental region. Louis Agassiz was born in Switzerland and educated there and in Germany. He then went to Paris, where he became the student of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), the great Prussian geographer, and Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), the equally influential zoologist who was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology. Agassiz became the first to present scientific evidence that the Earth had undergone an Ice Age, and he also became famous for his system of classification of fish, and he developed the scientific system of zoological classification for all genera. Agassiz's growing international renown resulted in his appointment as professor of zoology and geology at Harvard University in 1847. He founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology there in 1859, and he lived in the United States until his death in 1873. In his portrait here, Agassiz stands before a chalkboard, with an illustration of various species of radiates, a form of invertebrate marine life that involve symmetrical formation around a central hub (such as starfish, jellyfish, etc.). The portrait was taken late in his life, when Agassiz traveled to California in 1872 for an expedition and to give lectures in San Francisco. It shows him engaged in the work that most fascinated him: the classification of forms of life, and he is posed as if lecturing. For Agassiz, educating the public about the discoveries of naturalism was an important part of his calling. It was the task of classifying species that brought Agassiz to the question of race. Like many other scientists of his day, Agassiz was convinced that the human species was divided into races, and so the question was, what was the origin and basis of these different races? Agassiz was a biological idealist, a position he learned from his mentor, Cuvier. What idealism meant in biology was that all biological forms had their origin in the mind of God. As their Creator, God had a preexisting idea of each form of life and where it should fit into the overall plan of life on Earth. From this basis, Agassiz proposed his theory of polygenesis (literally, multiple births or origins): that each of the human races had a separate creation, that each race was created to be suited to a specific environmental context, and that therefore each race had particular physical and mental attributes appropriate to its intended context. Agassiz's theory, which he developed in the late 1840s, was tremendously controversial, because it seemed to contradict the biblical story of a single origin (monogenesis) of the human race with Adam and Eve. Agassiz was a believer, and he insisted that his theory did not contradict the biblical sense of a spiritual unity of humankind. Furthermore, when Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published On the Origin of Species in 1859, which argued that the various forms of life derive from the blind struggle of evolution, Agassiz became one of his chief opponents due to his idealist belief that the "origin" of species is the idea of each species in the mind of a creator God. This portrait of Agassiz should be connected to another photograph in the exhibition, the daguerreotype of Delia. In 1850, Agassiz commissioned a photographer in Charleston, South Carolina, to take pictures of slaves. The purpose of these images, some of the earliest images in ethnography, was for use as illustrations to demonstrate Agassiz's theory of polygenesis. Agassiz never published these images, and they remained forgotten until they were rediscovered in 1976. A good source for his biography is Louis Agassiz: A Life in Science, by Edward Lurie (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988 [1960]). Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary It is a compelling question how one of the most admired naturalists of his day, who loved his work and was dedicated to education, could also have argued for one of the most disturbingly racist explanations of the variation in human forms: the theory of polygenesis. The essays Page of the Mirror of Race has published several pieces on the influence of Louis Agassiz. "Louis Agassiz: Full Face and Profile," by Molly Rogers, presents a bio­graph­i­cal approach to the pho­tographs of slaves that Agassiz commissioned, con­sid­er­ing the images in rela­tion to the personal and pro­fes­sional attitudes of the nat­u­ral­ist who com­mis­sioned them. The series of essays by Helena Machado, Flavio Gomes, and John Moneiro, examines the meaning of an expedition to Brazil that Agassiz undertook in 1865-66, in part to gather evidence for his theory of polygenesis. In the future, we hope to publish more essays on science and race, both from a historical perspective and on the understanding in modern science of what race is -- and is not. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure082 Title A name given to the resource Louis Agassiz Subject The topic of the resource Louis Agassiz Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carleton Watkins Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1872 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/91b023c380f18a825f7f5388e458d614.tif 74963b51d61b23ec90f7d5ea4edf5d28 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data daguerreotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Ninth Plate (2 x 2.5 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary This daguerreotype by Thomas M. Easterly (1809-1882), of St. Louis, portrays Na-Che-ninga (1797-1862), a chief of the Ioway, or Iowa, tribe. Easterly took several photographs of Na-Che-ninga (more commonly known as Nacheninga) at the same sitting. Several clues show that this particular image is a copy daguerreotype of another, original image. For one thing, the edges of the original are dimly visible. Secondly, Easterly used a sharp tool to inscribe a caption into the silver surface of the daguerreotype plate. That inscription shows up here backwards, because unless a camera had reversing lens, it would show the subject in a mirror image, as it is in this case. That inscription reads as follows (see below for a close-up of the photograph, with the image reversed to show the writing more clearly): “Na-Che-ninga, or No Heart of fear. Chief of the Iowa tribe.” Nacheninga had a reputation as a fierce warrior and shrewd negotiator, one who kept his people whole. He rose to the position as chief in 1851, when his predecessor, Mahaska (White Cloud) died. Nacheninga dealt with the United States government and negotiated treaties in Washington, DC. In this daguerreotype, he poses wrapped in a heavy blanket and holding what must have been a prized possession, a splendidly crafted rifle. On another daguerreotype from the same session, Easterly inscribed the following about this weapon: "The Rifle was presented to the Chief of the Chippeways by King William the fourth of England during his sojourn in America.” And: "The barrel is made of Gold, Silver, and Platina, and carries an ounce ball with accuracy a distance of one mile.” If that is all true, the rifle would have been an exceptionally valuable weapon. William IV reigned 1830-1837, and as a much younger man, he served in the British navy, stationed in New York during the Revolution, and that is how the rifle may have come to the Chippewa. It is not know how the rifle traveled from the Chippewa, located around the Great Lakes, to the Iowa, although there were certainly trade and diplomatic ties between the peoples. Harvard’s Peabody Museum, where this photograph is held, notes that the image was collected by David Bushnell, Jr. (1875-1941), an amateur anthropologist and ethnographer with roots in the St. Louis area who donated his collection to the museum after his death. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary Thomas Easterly was an exceptionally skilled daguerreotypist who truly loved the medium ― he refused to give it up even when the daguerreotype process fell out of fashion after around 1860. Easterly took a particular interest in the Native American people of the regions around St. Louis. That he made multiple images of Nacheninga, and even copied them later, indicates his desire to document those peoples. It is fair to call this image of Nacheninga a portrait, for he seems to be a fully willing partner in his own representation, and as a diplomat and negotiator for his people, the Iowa, he was a man who might have understood the power of projecting an image by whatever means available. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure078 Title A name given to the resource Na-Che-Ninga, Chief of the Iowa Subject The topic of the resource Na-Che-Ninga, Chief of the Iowa Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas M. Easterly Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1847-51 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Harvard Peabody Museum (T1904 41-72-10; 53023B) https://mirrorofrace.bc.edu/files/original/8db2fafd6ad35f002ccb930f48b06d49.tif 27389b7e0bdd8560a88a31bbee62370b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mirror of Race Subject The topic of the resource Mirror of Race Main Collection Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data daguerreotype Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Sixth Plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches) Factual Commentary Factual Commentary This daguerreotype comes from the collection of the Harvard Peabody Museum. I was probably collected by the Harvard naturalist Louis Agassiz as visual evidence for his work on what he believed to the the separate races of humanity. While we do not know who either of the men were, the image, which dates from the mid-1840s, is likely to have been made in the Boston area. The man on the left is clearly of European descent, and the man on the right is Chinese, to judge by his clothing. We hope that further research will identify one or both of them. Interpretive Commentary Interpretive Commentary There are many interesting details to this photograph, and while we can for now only speculate as to what those details might mean, they might also provide clues to identifying the two men. For example, the Chinese man wears well-tailored clothes, possibly silk, and he has very long fingernails, so clearly he was not a worker. So was he a Chinese government official, perhaps an ambassador? A student come to study at an American university? A wealthy merchant? The white man also wears an elegant and expensive suit. Why did he pose with the Chinese man? Was he the escort to the visitor? Did he bring his guest to have this daguerreotype made to commemorate an event? He seems relatively relaxed, and looks into the camera with an almost familiar gaze, as if he has done this often before. The Chinese man, by contrast, seems stiff and formal, and does not engage the viewer at all; perhaps this was his first time having a photograph taken . Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Figure077 Title A name given to the resource two men Subject The topic of the resource unknown Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource circa 1845 Type The nature or genre of the resource studio portrait Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Harvard Peabody Museum (T1897 35-5-10; 53068) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Photographer Photographer